Cabinet of European Art – English descriptions
1. The Crucifixion, Maestro dell’Osservanza (Sano di Pietro), (active c. 1425– c. 1450/1481?)
c. 1450–1460, tempera and gilding on wood
The Crucifixion is the central panel of a five-panel base of an altarpiece (predella), which also includes the following scenes: on the left, The Flagellation and The Way to Calvary; and, on the right, The Descent into the Abyss and The Resurrection.
The painting, painted on panel, is an outstanding example of late Sienese Gothic. It is the work of one of the more original painters active in fifteenth-century Siena, a city that resisted the stylistic changes coming from Florence for several decades. While the typical archaism of the style is prominent, it is important to note the skilful use of perspective, the sculptural quality of the multi-figure groups, their natural poses and dynamic gestures.
2. Orpheus and Euridice in Hades, Jacopo del Sellaio (Florence, 1441–1493, Florence)
c. 1490, tempera on wood
The painting belongs to a series of three spalliere – decorated backboards mounted on walls or furniture in wealthy homes at the height of the viewer’s shoulders. The series tells the story of Orpheus and Eurydice. The second spalliera in the series, presented here, depicts two successive scenes of a story. On the left, Orpheus is playing to Pluto, who is seated at the entrance, to get permission to free his beloved Euridice from Hades; her silhouette can be seen at the exit of the grotto. On the right is an intense struggle for Eurydice between Orpheus and the centaur as they pull her from each other’s grasp. The first spalliera completing the set is in the Boijmans van Beuningen Museum in Rotterdam, and the third is in the Wawel Royal Castle in Krakow. The composition of the paintings is based on the texts of Virgil’s Georgics and Ovid’s Metamorphoses. Still, the artist may also have been inspired by the works of Dante Alighieri, Giovanni Boccaccio, Angelo Poliziano or Marsilio Ficino.
3. Madonna and Child with the Infant, Saint John the Baptist, Pseudo-Pier Francesco Fiorentino (active in the 2nd half of the 15th century, Florence)
2nd half of the 15th century, tempera on wood, gold
In Renaissance Italy, images of the Virgin and Child became particularly popular. Often accompanied by saints or angels, they were frequently set within an architectural frame or niche. Florentine workshops produced these artworks in large quantities for the nobility and wealthy bourgeoisie. These small curved-top tabernacles, called colmi da camera, were typically placed in private bedrooms for personal devotion.
The Virgin Mary and the infant Jesus are depicted in the centre of the composition. Mary supports her child with both hands as he stands on a narrow, dark windowsill, looking directly at the viewer. The naked Jesus appears particularly vulnerable, standing unsteadily on his feet, slightly leaning to the right and resting on his mother’s hand. Mary’s tender gesture is a notable feature of images intended for private worship; she caresses her child, gently touching his cheek with her finger. John the Baptist is shown to the left with his hands raised in prayer, holding a thin red cross.
4–5. The Holy Family with Infant Saint John the Baptist and Saint Catherine of Siena, uknown Sienense painter
after 1500, oil on wood
Tondos depict the Holy Family accompanied by the infant St John the Baptist and St Catherine of Siena. St Catherine (Caterina Benincasa; 1347–1380) was a Dominican tertiary, mystic and stigmatist. A cult of the Dominican nun began to develop soon after her death, boosted by her canonisation in 1461.
The cult was expressed in various works of art dedicated to the saint. Many of these were produced in artists’ workshops in her hometown of Siena. There, in the Church of St Dominic, a relic of her skull is housed.
6. Cassone
Italy, 18th –19th century (16th-century model), walnut wood, carving
The cassone, or marriage chest, is a piece of furniture characteristic of the Italian Renaissance. It is a low chest featuring painted and sculptural decorations used for storing clothing, valuables, and dowries. The object on display is an intriguing example of a marriage chest from the eighteenth or nineteenth century, meant to evoke the style, construction, and form of Renaissance cassoni from the sixteenth century.
The front is richly decorated in a grotesque style, with a central cartouche showcasing two figures holding an unidentified coat of arms. It is complemented by male torsos emerging from floral wreaths and framed by additional torsos rising from cups of flowers. The slightly bevelled corners of the chest are adorned with full-figured personages. A lockbox in the upper part of the lid is probably used to store valuable jewellery or important correspondence.
7. Saint Jerome, unknown Venetian painter
1st half of the 16th century, oil on wood
The painting depicts St Jerome seated in a secluded hermitage, nestled in the shadow of a cave, wholly engrossed in his reading. It showcases several elements typical of fifteenth- and sixteenth-century Venetian painting, such as the background arrangement is significant, as it opens up on the right side of the composition, revealing a broad view of the distant landscape. The scenery is diverse; rural buildings are set against gentle hills in the middle ground. To the left, sharp-edged mountain peaks, covered in snow, emerge in the distance. On the right edge of the painting, a bay extends into the sea, creating a picturesque depth. It was common for Venetian painters to depict both the sea and high mountains within a single scene, as they could see year-round the snow-capped peaks of the Dolomites from the upper floors of their homes.
8. Portrait of Giovanni Baglione (?), unknown Roman painter (?)
1606 –1643, oil on canvas
Turning slightly to the left, the elderly man holds an object in his left hand, which he clearly exposes towards the viewer. Thus far, the work has been described as an anonymous portrait from the Seville school, a classification that the Khanenko Museum still maintains, although it emphasises the need for further research on the piece. Recent stylistic and comparative analyses have linked it to a portrait from a 1625 engraving by Ottavio Leoni, which depicts Giovanni Baglione (1566–1643), a Roman painter and the author of a work containing the lives of artists, including the first biography of Caravaggio. In both depictions, numerous physiognomic similarities are discernible, proving that we are dealing with the same person. By comparing the graphic portraits of the Italian artist with the painting from the Khanenko Museum, it can be confidently suggested that the Kyiv painting depicts Giovanni Baglione holding the cross of the Supreme Order of Christ in his hand, awarded him by the pope in 1606.
9. The Holy Family, Simone Cantarini (Simone da Pesaro), called Il Pesarese (Pesaro, 1612–1648, Verona)
c. 164, oil on canvas
The painting depicts the Holy Family gathered around a table. The infant Jesus, supported by St Joseph, gives Mary a rose to smell. The flower symbolises love and foreshadows the Passion to come. The Madonna, seated on the right, has probably been distracted from her reading – she holds the open book in front of her with her left hand.
Initially captivated by the works of Federico Barocci and Caravaggio, Simone Cantarini developed his own artistic style over time. His body of work features compositions characterised by expressive and highly realistic chiaroscuro effects, as well as serene scenes that display elegance, attracting viewers with their vivid colours. The artist mostly created portraits and religious scenes. Among the latter, depictions of the Holy Family are most frequent, often including St John the Baptist. While at least four versions of the same composition are known, the one housed in the Khanenko Museum is recognised as the highest artistic achievement.
10. Still Life with Pumpkins, Grapes and Pomegranates, Michelangelo Pace called del Campidoglio (Rome, c. 1610–1670, Rome)
1651 (?) – c. 1660, oil on canvas
In the centre of the composition two pumpkins are depicted, a green one, smashed, and a yellow pumpkin. The surrounding area is dominated by various fruits: pomegranates, white and red grapes, apples, peaches, and figs. The ripe and slightly overripe, decaying fruit may symbolise autumn, a time when these harvests reach their final texture. The artist has expertly captured the juiciness of the fruit through a skilful interplay of light and colour, placing patches of green, yellow, and red side by side. The diagonal arrangement – from the dark upper left corner to the increasingly lighter opposite angle – along with the descending ground featuring a stone shelf scattered with pumpkins and fruit, enlivens the composition and creates a sense of movement.
11. A Girl with a Birdcage, Venetian or Bolognese School
17th c., oil on canvas
A girl, facing the viewer, holds an open, empty birdcage in her left hand. With her other hand, she points to a young man on the right who is embracing her and gazing at her. The woman is dressed in a red gown, adorned with a white headscarf and a white hat tied with a red ribbon. The artwork likely portrays a courtesan and a young man who has just lost his innocence, as indicated by the open cage held by the woman. Her indifference to his courtship and the dominant colour red confirm her profession. In Venice, where many trade routes crossed, the profession of courtesan, who engaged in prostitution in a specific, sophisticated, but not vulgar way, flourished from the sixteenth century. In another interpretation, it is suggested that the similar attire often worn by travelling actors could indicate that the couple depicted are performers from the Italian commedia dell’arte. This might illustrate a scene between lovers (Italian: innamorati) or servants (Italian: zanni), with these characters typically appearing without masks.
12–13. Guéridon with the Figure of a Moorish Woman, Venetian workshop (?)
after 1730, supports from the 3rd quarter of the 19th c., polychrome wood, gold leaf and powder, powdered silver, pigments, varnish, wood carving, gilding, silver plating, polychrome
The guéridons, which are representative of the high bases for vases made of carved wood, depict a Moor and a Moorish woman standing on rocks in bent poses, wearing turbans and loose, colourful clothing. They hold round platters on their heads, the edges of which are decorated with imitation of tropical fruits and leaves. The dark-skinned figures have Caucasian facial features. The guéridons on display belong to a particular trend in European art of the Baroque, Rococo, and Romantic periods, known as blackmoor. It developed in the mid-seventeenth century in Venice and quickly spread throughout Europe. They typically depict black- or dark-skinned people (Africans, Arabs, rarely Indians). In applied art, they are represented in full- or half-figures, forming a decorative and structural element of furniture, table, lamp or chair.
14. Capriccio with Classical Ruins, Leonardo Coccorante (Naples, 1680–1750, Naples)
c. 1735 – before 1750, oil on canvas
The painting features a classical ruin on the left, with an antique figure positioned in a niche. On the right is a square on the quay, surrounded by a fragment of the façade that includes a balcony and an awning overhead. The stage is complemented with animals and merchants engaged in conversation in the square. A galley bearing the flag of Malta is visible on the water, and in the deep left corner, against the mountains, there are buildings with a characteristic bridge with three openings.
Leonardo Coccorante was a vedutista known for creating numerous capricci depicting landscapes featuring classical Roman architecture’s ruins. Between 1736 and 1739, he decorated the royal palace in Naples. His compositions typically showcase classical ruins along the shore of a bay, with smaller figures included to emphasise the grandeur of the architecture. In the background, the bay’s coast is aligned with distant hills. The overall scene is often enveloped in the soft glow of evening or moonlight, complemented by dark clouds.
15. Capriccio with Classical Ruins and the Harbour of Taranto, Leonardo Coccorante (Naples, 1680 –1750, Naples)
c. 1735 – before 1750, oil on canvas
Besides the classical ruins, the composition features a bastion of the harbour, likely in Taranto, Italy. The foreground depicts a coastal square flanked on both sides by fragments of ancient ruins. The lively scene includes townspeople walking among scattered pieces of stone and columns. Prominently positioned along the shore is a group of individuals next to parcels tied with string, along with a ship bearing the British flag, which belongs to the merchant navy, anchored in the roadstead.
16. The Riva degli Schiavoni in Venice, Francesco Tironi (Venice, c. 1745–1797 Venice)
before 1797, oil on canvas
The veduta depicts one of the most iconic locations in Venice – the Riva degli Schiavoni. On the left, the perspective of the quay with boats is framed by the impressive silhouette of the Santa Maria della Salute church. On the right, buildings along the quay leading to St Mark’s Square are visible, including the Palazzo Dandolo and the distinctive structure of the Palazzo Ducale. The composition is enlivened by portrayed residents engaged in daily activities, such as trading, unloading goods, and strolling along the quay.
The artist’s oeuvre remains mainly unexplored, with very few of his pieces known, all connected to Venice. Above all, Tironi is a skilled documentarian who captured the ephemeral spirit of his era in his paintings.
17. Sedan Chair, Venetian workshop (?)
18th–19th c., birch wood, lime wood, beech wood, metal, velvet, silk, leather, glass, carving, gilding, casting, oil on wood
This sedan chair consists of a windowed cabin with space for one passenger and two cantilevered poles for the porters carrying it. This sedan chair has rich paintings and sculptural decorations. The central decorative motifs include painted representations of the four seasons, displayed in the central part of each panel and the upper section of the back of the sedan char – Spring is depicted with a basket of flowers and a floral garland, Summer is shown holding a sickle and ears of grain, Autumn is personified as Bacchus with a garland of vines, wine grapes, and a chalice, and Winter is represented as an elderly man holding a bird.
On the back, under the representation of winter, is a medallion with a landscape with a building in the background. The representations correspond to the commonly accepted depictions of the seasons, prevalent in printmaking and described among others in Cesare Ripa’s Iconologia.
18. A Girl with a Dead Bird, Cesare Fracassini (Rome, 1838–1868, Rome)
1861, oil on canvas
A girl, lost in melancholy thoughts, holds a dead goldfinch in her hand. Behind her, on the wall, hangs an empty cage, and a predatory-looking cat creeps beneath it. These elements can be seen as an allegory for lost virtue. In European culture, birds symbolise freedom, flight, and the hopes and dreams associated with the human soul. The girl may be contemplating the dangers of newfound freedom that comes with leaving the family nest, or she might be experiencing sadness as she confronts the death of a living being for the first time on such a bright summer day.
This painting may also be related to the untimely death of the painter’s youngest son. This work is particularly important to the history of the Khanenko Museum, as it was one of the first paintings that Bohdan and Varvara Khanenko bought during their honeymoon trip to Italy, thus initiating their collection of European art.
19. Still Life with a Chocolate Service, Juan de Zurbarán (Llerena, 1620 –1649, Sevilla)
1640 / oil on canvas
The picture illustrates the preparation of chocolate, a fashionable drink in the seventeenth century. It was regarded as an aphrodisiac by the aristocracy and considered a nourishing beverage by the Catholic clergy, who permitted its consumption during fasting.
On a velvety black background, the luxurious objects are presented, used in the chocolate-making ceremony, mostly imported, highlighting the social status of the painting’s commissioner. This artwork is an artistic gem, with Juan Zurbarán’s refined and delicate technique capturing the texture of each extraordinary object through subtle gradations and the interplay of light and reflections. Most notable is the contents of the round bark box, which contained chocolate paste delivered to Spain from the colonies. The mortar-like jícara, situated atop the paste box, is a vessel from the Central American regions where the first cocoa fruits were imported. It was used to mix the chocolate paste with other ingredients and whip the foam. The thick froth, considered the most valuable part of the drink, was achieved by spinning a wooden whisk (Spanish: molinillo) between the hands, which is the second object on the right. Once prepared, the finished drink was poured into cups, with the foam transferred using a wide silver spoon, depicted on the right near the table’s edge. The silver jug was designated for milk, which did not spoil so quickly in silver, while the earthenware jug held cold water, maintaining its freshness longer due to the indentations on its body. The two porcelain cups were imported from China.
20. Infanta Margaret Theresa, workshop of Juan Bautista Martínez del Mazo (Beteta, 1612–1667, Madrid)
c. 166, oil on canvas
The portrait of the Infanta Margaret Theresa is a compositionally reduced copy of a large full-figure portrait by Diego Velázquez’s assistant and son-in-law, Juan Bautista Martínez del Mazo.
The half-figure portrait of the girl – the daughter of Spanish King Philip IV – presents a high artistic level and emulates the late style of the great master, the so-called manera abreviada. This style is characterised by a free, almost sketch-like approach, where individual brushstrokes are clearly visible up close and are arranged to create realistically rendered textures and forms. The girl is depicted wearing a silver-grey-pink dress called a guardainfante, which features a tight bodice, an extra-wide skirt (Spanish: basquiсa), and slit sleeves that end in lace cuffs. The elegant outfit is completed with a diamond brooch set in a bright red silk rosette. A ribbon crisscrossing the dress’s bodice is adorned with tiny diamonds, whose brilliance is skilfully represented through speckled paint stains and seemingly random dots made with a brush handle. In contrast, the Infanta Margaret’s face and her voluminous hairstyle, embellished with a flame-red plume, are painted with gentle, rhythmic strokes. According to court etiquette, this hairstyle complements the guardainfante dress.
21. Charles II of Spain, Jan van Kessel II (?) (Antwerp, 1654–1708, Madrid)
after 1690, oil on canvas
The portrait depicts Charles II Habsburg (1661–1700), King of Spain from 1665 to 1700. He was the son of Philip IV and his second wife, Marianne Habsburg, the daughter of Emperor Ferdinand III Habsburg. Charles II had a strong interest in art, as evidenced by the many artists he employed at his court and the numerous artistic projects he initiated. This led to a large number of his official portraits, now preserved in various collections throughout Spain and Europe.
Habsburg is set against a neutral brown background in the painting, presented in an oval format, up to a hip length, with his body slightly tilted to the right. He wears a wig styled à la lion and has a serious expression with a gaze directed towards the viewer. His attire reflects the typical court fashion of the second half of the seventeenth century, consisting of a black ropilla with a white starched collar, a coat with wide sleeves embroidered in gold, the Order of the Golden Fleece on a chain, and a sabre. The portrayal captures him at around thirty years of age, which aligns with the comparisons made to works by other painters from that period.
22. Man in a Turban, unknown artist after a painting by Rembrandt van Rijn (Leiden, 1606–1669, Amsterdam)
after 1632, oil on canvas (transferred from wood)
The work features a mature man dressed in an ornate, Oriental-style robe with a shawl draped over his shoulders and a turban on his head. This piece is a compositionally reduced copy of Rembrandt van Rijn’s painting Man in a Turban, executed in 1632.
The portrayal of oriental figures in art is linked to several contexts: historical painting, which often reflects costumes from biblical times; interactions with the Ottoman Empire, from which Turkish and Persian motifs were derived; and the creation of tronies, which are studies focusing on physiognomic expressions, typically depicting heads or half-figures in oriental attire. Many of these compositions included objects from the artists’ studios. It is known that Rembrandt owned Turkish and Persian weapons and Indian costumes, which he depicted in his various paintings.
As part of their artistic practice, Rembrandt’s pupils and imitators frequently painted small-scale renditions of tronies, reproducing the heads or half-figures from the master’s works. The piece from the Kyiv collection may be an example of this type of brushstroke study, created by a Rembrandt imitator who replicated the master’s composition on a smaller scale to refine his skills in depicting oriental subjects.
23. Arcadian Landscape with Nymphs and a Satyr, Cornelis van Poelenburch (Utrecht, 1594/1595–1667, Utrecht)
1617–1626, oil on oak wood
The painting is a prime example of the Arcadian landscape genre – a scene set in Arcadia, a fictional land of eternal happiness – in which Cornelis van Poelenburch specialised. In this artwork, we can observe the characteristic features associated with this style, where artists portray picturesque settings populated by shepherds and shepherdesses, along with mythical creatures such as satyrs, nymphs, and fauns.
The presented theme is taken from the work of the Greek writer Philostratus the Elder (c. 190–248 AD), titled Imagines. Following the classical text in detail, Poelenburch reproduced the image of Midas as described in the work. A drunken satyr lies beneath a mountain on the bank of a stream. He has been captured by the Phrygian king Midas, who has filled the stream with wine. The artist depicts the treacherous king to the left of the satyr. Midas is portrayed wearing a golden cloak adorned with a tiara and elongated donkey ears. According to the myth, he received these ears from Apollo as punishment for failing to recognise Apollo’s superiority in a musical competition against the shepherd god Pan. Half-naked nymphs surrounding the satyr mock his drunkenness, while nearby, a shepherdess dances with a shepherd, and a flock of goats and cows graze peacefully. Cornelis van Poelenburch recreated this picturesque Arcadian valley from his own sketches of the suburbs of Rome. The waterfalls and ancient ruins visible in the distance on the left are reminiscent of the Tivoli area, particularly the remains of the Temple of Vesta.
24. Landscape with Two Fishermen on the Bank of the Canal near Zijlpoort in Haarlem, Cornelis Gerritsz. Decker(Haarlem, c. 1615–1678, Haarlem)
c. 1657, oil on wood
The landscape features picturesque country houses along the canal banks in Haarlem. On the left bank is the Zijlpoort (Dutch for a drainage lock) – a double city gate. The gate in the background serves as the main entrance to the city, set within the city wall. The tops of townhouses and church towers can be seen from behind it. To the right is the roof and tower of St Mary’s Monastery (Klooster van Maria op de Zijl), and to the left, in the distance, stands the tower of St Bavon’s Church (Sint-Bavokerk), whose bells signalled the closing of the city gates in the evening. The man in the red shirt opening the gate may be the guard allowing the last traveller to enter. The canal that connects Haarlem to Leiden (Trekvaart Haarlem-Leiden) begins near the Zijlpoort gate. Dug in 1657, it became an important waterway. Decker’s painting depicts the road and banks during a flood, even before the canal was constructed. The water is already overflowing the farm buildings, and two villagers are seen throwing a net into the canal from the planked road. In the background, a windmill can be seen, traditionally used to grind grain, bark, or spices and pump water out of areas below sea level.
Cornelis Decker’s landscape is an example of the so-called haarlempjes – a sub-genre of seventeenth-century Dutch painting depicting views of Haarlem.
25. Storm at Sea, Pieter Mulier I (Haarlem, c. 1595/1615 – c. 1659/1661, Haarlem)
c. 1650, oil on canvas
Pieter Mulier I specialised in seascape painting, which includes maritime scenes with ships as well as depictions of beaches. The genre evolved from landscape painting and shares stylistic trends with it. Within it, two main sub-genres developed: the first focuses on events at sea, such as battles or fleet assemblies, while the second emphasises the water, coasts, or rivers, highlighting the elements of nature.
Mulier’s works combine elements from both sub-genres. In one of his paintings, three ships float on the water. On the left, the first ship has three masts adorned with two flags of the Kingdom of the Netherlands and a third flag representing the City of Rotterdam. The number of figures on board suggests this is a passenger ship rather than a cargo vessel. The second ship, on the right, also flies the flag of the Netherlands and is identified as being from Amsterdam, indicated by the city’s coat of arms at its bow. The third ship, visible in the background, is painted less distinctly, making it difficult to identify. The vessels from Amsterdam and Rotterdam in the picture provide clues for determining the scene’s location. Additionally, in the central foreground, there is a barely visible depiction of the dorsal fin of a dolphin or porpoise. The presence of these animals is more characteristic of the delta area in the province of Zuid-Holland rather than the waters of the Bay of Zuiderzee, suggesting that the scene takes place near the port of Rotterdam.
26. God of the Scheldt River, Cybele and the Goddess of the City of Antwerp – modello, Peter Paul Rubens (Siegen, 1577–1640, Antwerp)
c. 1615, oil on oak panel
This sketch by Rubens is a rare example of an early modello by the master. Its uniqueness is also reflected in the fact that no full-scale painting was created based on this sketch. Quickly made sketches (bozzetti) or more detailed sketches (modelli) primarily served as a kind of notebook for ideas. These sketches were also intended for initial design approval by clients or the workshop staff, who would transfer Rubens’ concepts onto large canvases.
The overall meaning of this allegorical representation – combining Earth and Water as a promise of prosperity – is widely accepted by scholars today. However, the interpretation of individual figures remains controversial. The god of the river on the left has been described as a personification of the Tigris River, Acheloos (the god of the Acheloos River), and Scaldis (the god of the Scheldt, which flows through Antwerp). The female figure wearing a mural crown (Lat. corona muralis) is interpreted as either the goddess Kybele or Antwerp, the patron of Antwerp. The young girl standing on the right is often seen as representing either the Earth or Antwerp.
27. Winter Landscape, Gijsbrecht Leytens (Antwerp, 1586 –1642/1657), c. 1615 / oil on oak panel
At the end of the sixteenth century and in the early decades of the seventeenth century, Europeans experienced several extremely cold and snowy winters, a period often referred to as the Little Ice Age. During this time, a new type of representation showcasing winter landscapes (Dutch: Winterken) gained immense popularity.
The presented winter landscape is characterised by the artist’s original and instantly recognisable style. His typical large, dark trees with gnarled trunks and densely braided branches frame the painting’s edges, while the foreground is darker in tone than the background – a technique known as repoussoir.
Winter dominates the scene, enveloping everything in frost and snow, covering the roads, trees, the manor house in the background, and the small country cottages. The painter expertly employs techniques that convey a sense of coldness, space, and frosty air, all while demonstrating extraordinary precision in execution. The intricately detailed branches of the chestnut trees are home to various birds: a jay, a woodpecker, two thrushes, and several magpies. In the foreground, a pair of kingfishers perched on a low bush near two figures on the right, one of whom is cutting a gap in the ice. The artist has captured the precise moment of the action – early December. In the foreground on the right, a villager can be seen with a rooster for sale, anticipating the pre-Christmas meat market, while a bit further away stands a village woman holding a bundle of reeds, which were typically pulled from beneath the fragile ice during the first frosty days. The three travellers, depicted under a tree by a fire in bright, exotic clothing and turbans, resemble gypsies, who were quite common in the Netherlands at that time. However, it is possible that the artist intended to portray the Three Wise Men coming to honour the new-born Christ. Such details added to the painting’s authenticity in the eyes of art lovers.
Winter landscapes were often one of the representations in a series of four seasons, and they were also associated with a particular period of a man’s life, such as, in this case, old age.
28. Cupid and Sleeping Nymphs, Jacob Jordaens (Antwerp, 1593–1678, Antwerp)
late 1640s – early 1650s, oil on canvas
The depicted scene is from The Metamorphoses, also known as The Golden Ass, by Apuleius. It tells the story of the trials that Psyche, the personification of the human soul in antiquity, endured on her journey to love. The painting illustrates a moment where Cupid, while wandering in the forest, encounters Psyche and her two sisters asleep on the grass. Enchanted by Psyche’s beauty, the young god falls in love and experiences the power of human affection for the first time. The influence of Rubens is evident in this composition. The artist’s signature landscape and striking details, such as the patterned canopy gracefully draped over the sleeping figures and the exotic peacock, blend with a distinctly Flemish artistic sensibility. The generous forms of the women’s bodies reflect the ideal of female beauty created by Rubens rather than classical antiquity’s standards.
29. The Cabinet of Art Connoisseur, Frans Francken II (Antwerp, 1581–1642, Antwerp) with workshop
before 1625, oil on canvas
The composition illustrates an interior of a ground-floor salon in an Antwerp townhouse; on the right probably represents Gillis De Kimpe, hosting Rubens himself at a banquet. The whole room is filled with paintings, sculptures, and natural wonders, many of which can be identified with a high degree of certainty.
In the early seventeenth century, a distinctive painting style emerged in Antwerp, the hometown of the painter, where the trade in luxury goods and artwork from around the world thrived. Such collections became a medium for spreading humanist ideas among the middle class. Wealthy Flemish sailors and merchants began decorating their homes with craftsmanship, including paintings, sculptures, and natural wonders like exotic animals, shells or stones. These collections reflected the owners’ cultural experiences, taste, success, and social status. Consequently, a new genre of painting depicting artistic interiors, pioneered by Frans Francken II, quickly gained popularity.
30. Saint Jerome, autograph replica or circle of Nicolas Régnier, (Maubeuge, 1591–1667, Venice)
after 1628, oil on canvas
St Jerome of Stridon (347–420), the Father of the Church, is best known for translating the text of Scripture from the original languages into Latin, the so-called Vulgate. The composition depicts him in a hermitage, busy working on translating the Bible. Here, we see the play of light and shadow, characteristic of the Caravaggisti. The light body of the figure contrasts with the red of the robe and the dark background. The artist has constructed a diagonal composition, focusing attention on the face of St Jerome – he has created a tension between the work on the translation (the hand holding the pen and writing in the open book) and the trumpet of the Last Judgement, shown on the opposite side, protruding from the cloud. The trumpet symbolises the moment when the saint, during his travels through Thrace, had a vision that led him to abandon secular studies to dedicate himself to the study of God. At the end of his life, Saint Jerome is portrayed as an elderly man who understands the significance of his theological work. To the left of the image, the artist has included symbols associated with the saint: an hourglass, books with a skull resting on them, and a red cardinal’s hat hanging on the wall.
31. The Lovers (The Prodigal Son with the Harlot), Pierre Goudreauх (Paris, 1694 (?) – 1731, Mannheim)
before 1731, oil on canvas
The subject of the painting was described as a representation of a couple in love, while the actual content refers to the Gospel parable of the prodigal son (Luke 15:11–32). The story told by Christ became an example of how love and mercy heal wounds and save the souls of the fallen.
Unlike seventeenth-century artists who depicted the prodigal son at a feast in an inn surrounded by merry girls, Boudreaux, in keeping with the spirit of the imminent Enlightenment, concentrates on the problem of moral choice. He avoids unnecessary detail and focuses on the brightly lit face of the harlot and her lustful gaze, the gesture of a hand on her shoulder, while the figure of the young man shown in profile is deliberately submerged in half shadow. We do not recognise the expression on his face and cannot guess his feelings. Perhaps he will agree to the woman’s offer in a moment, or, conversely, he will knock her intrusive hand off his shoulder and resist temptation. Pierre Goudreaux’s free painting technique with dynamic, energetic brushstrokes, light contrasts, and baroque colour saturation heightens the perception of the emotions contained in the scene.
32. Shipwreck Survivors at the Sea, Pierre-Jacques Volaire (?) (Toulon, 1729–1799, Naples)
1763–1768, oil on canvas
The composition portrays a ship crashing against the rocks, with survivors being pulled ashore. The scene unfolds during the evening or dawn, as a sudden storm transforms the previously clear blue sky into dark, overwhelming clouds and agitates the sea. The foaming waves mirror this chaos on the shore. On the left, a rugged coastline features a wind-torn tree and an overhanging cliff. A detailed group of figures on a rocky outcropping is seen rescuing castaways. Our attention is drawn to the people at the edge of the rock, who, using ropes, pull a woman who has lost her strength to safety. A second female figure, kneeling on the rock, spreads her hands in despair. To the left, we see a ship bearing a Dutch flag leaning precariously and a small boat with the rescued shipwreck survivors, with more vessels in the background. Such scenes highlighted the perilous nature of sea voyages, which are heavily influenced by unpredictable weather changes that can lead to storms and treacherous currents, pushing ships onto rocky, dangerous shores.
33. Bacchus and Ariadne, Louis de Boullogne (?) (Paris, 1654–1733, Paris)
before 1733, oil on canvas
The artist was inspired by Ovid’s Metamorphoses (Book III, 527–756; Book VIII, 175–184). After killing the Minotaur, Theseus sailed with Ariadne, who was in love with him, to Crete. He abandoned her, however, on the island of Naxos. Bacchus (also known as Dionysus) soon arrived there and married Ariadne.
In the foreground, a group of figures are shown in the centre: Bacchus, Ariadne, and Venus seated on a cloud and stroking two white pigeons, which are her attributes. The goddess of love places a garland of stars (Corona Borealis) on Ariadne’s head with her left hand. According to tradition, it was made by Hephaestus and given to her by Bacchus. After Ariadne’s death, it became the constellation Corona Borealis, also called the Northern Crown. Above the figures on the left is a putto with a bow – perhaps a reference to the god of marriage, Hymenaios, son of Bacchus and Venus. Next, we see a satyr with his back turned, holding a bunch of grapes and a woman playing a tambourine. Around the satyr are scattered fruits: grapes, figs and a smashed pomegranate. According to tradition, the pomegranate fruit grew from a tree that originated from the blood of Bacchus and is considered a symbol of death and resurrection. To the right stands the chariot of Venus. On the left, figures are playing in the background, and further deep, we see the sea and the moored ship on which Bacchus arrived at Naxos.
The painting belongs to a series of four representations showing scenes from Ovid’s Metamorphoses, initially displayed in the Council Hall at the Royal Castle in Warsaw. The other three depicted: The Revenge of Latona, Jupiter and Callisto, and The Birth of Adonis.
Bacchus and Ariadne is one of two paintings on display from the collection of King Stanisław August, regarded as lost for over 200 years.
34. Allegory of Painting, Martino Altomonte (?) (Naples, 1657–1745, Vienna) or Bartolomeo Altomonte (?) (Warsaw, 1694–1783, Sankt Florian)
c. 1745, oil on canvas
The painting features a putto holding a painting palette, brushes, and a painting staff. The staff, topped with a soft end and leaning against the painted image, served as support for the artist’s hand while painting, allowing for careful and precise strokes. Although painters rarely used it, it is commonly found as an attribute in painting allegories.
The graphic analogues of this representation and its purpose are not known. The large dimensions of the composition suggest that it is not a fragment of a larger work. The painting was attributed to Martino Altomonte, who worked for King Jan III Sobieski, or to his son, Bartolomeo Altomonte, who was born in Warsaw but active in Austria.
35. Architectural Capriccio with the Ruins of a Temple, Bernardo Bellotto called Canaletto (Venice, 1722–1780, Warsaw)
1762–1766, oil on canvas
The composition primarily features the ruins of a late Baroque church, complete with a dome adorned with full-figure sculptures of saints. One of the three visible statues on the balustrade depicts a woman holding a palm branch, a symbol of martyrdom, likely representing St Agnes of Rome. To the right of the composition is a fragment of a colonnade that evokes the Temple of Vespasian in the Forum Romanum. In the foreground, a prominent equestrian statue is reminiscent of the Venetian statue of Bartolomeo Colleoni. The abundant figures in the scene reflect Bellotto’s early works. Today, eight autograph preparatory drawings of this painting are known.
36. Landscape with a Waterfall on the Right, Jean-Baptiste Pillement (Lyon, 1728–1808, Lyon)
1765 –1767, oil on canvas
The presented painting exemplifies the ideal landscape in the pittoresque type characteristic of Pillement’s work. It features a carefully composed view with traditional elements designed to evoke a picturesque effect: tall, wooded rocks, a rushing waterfall, and the ruins of a castle on a hill. This scene is illuminated by the warm light of the setting sun, with shepherds tending to a herd of goats in the foreground. Created between 1765 and 1767 for King Stanisław August, the painting was exhibited in the Royal Łazienki Museum park at the Myślewicki Palace after 1788 and then in the Great Annexe (Officer Cadets School). It is a pendant to the now-lost Landscape with a Waterfall on the Left and is one of the two paintings from Stanisław August’s collection displayed at the exhibition that had been regarded as lost for over 200 years.
37. Stanisław August in a Costume à la Henri IV, Louise-Élisabeth Vigée-Le Brun (1755–1842)
1797, oil on canvas
King Stanisław August is depicted in the historicising attire of King Henry IV of France (1553–1610). The Polish king wears a plumed hat, a dark blue doublet with a lace collar, and a black coat. Around his neck hangs a gold chain featuring a medallion that depicts the Eye of Providence. This portrayal refers to King Henry IV of Bourbon, known for his ability to maintain peace between Calvinists and Catholics in France, as well as his efforts to establish political and economic stability. The medallion emphasises the importance of divine providence in decision-making and the exercise of power. It is one of the last two King Stanisław August’s portraits painted live.